I would like to introduce Dr. Phil and Captain Polly and they're going to talk to you
about cyberhijacking airplanes, tell us, is it truth or fiction. >> I guess you'll find out. >>
Alright, guys, well, thanks for coming. Hopefully if our talk sucks, the next one doesn't and
you can just stay here and have a good seat. That was my plan for my talk yesterday. That
said, I'm Dr. Phil and this is Captain Polly. Just a little bit why this talk. Well, you know, a
lot of people have been talking about being able to take over planes remotely and such, and of
course when you say things like that, you get a lot of press. And so we just thought maybe it
was time to investigate some of these things and look into them a little further and it's okay
to be scared but if you're going to be scared be scared because of reality, not because of some
fiction, maybe some stuff that the media has made you think. So, just a little bit about me.
Some of you may know me as a hardware hacker. I wrote a book. Which I'm shamelessly plugging
by putting my cover as a background for this slide. Anyway, in addition to that, I
also am an aviator. I have 12 aviation ratings, they're all current including commercial
pilot flight instructor, airplane mechanic inspection authorization holder, avionics
technician, a couple others. Thousands of hours of flight time. Also aircraft builder and
importantly for our talk today, I've actually done some development and trussing work on
some of the avionics that you would find in some of these modern airliners. I also have
access to manuals, current and former airline pilots, i.e., Captain Polly and others, and
that's about me. >> So, I'm Captain Polly. I'm currently an associate professor at a
college, University of Dubuque that has a flight program that trains pilots. >> University
redacted. >> Redacted, yes okay. >> My background one here is to just give you the perspective is
commercial airline pilot training. How we train and safety and mind. >> Alright.
Little bit about what we want to talk about today. We wanted to talk about things like ADSB. You
may have heard about it, ADS-A, its kinda similar but different, ACARS, transponders, collision
avoidance systems, how do they work. A little bit about GPS, you guys already know about GPS,
auto pilots, some avionics busses and networks and some attacks which you may have heard
about. So, you may have heard about people saying, okay, I can attack your airplane, take it
over by hacking into the avionics network via in flight wifi or the entertainment
network. We'll going to talk a little bit about that and examine is that true or is that
not true or is it kinda true. We'll talk a little bit about ADSB hacking, also talk about
things like engine system monitors, ACARS, what it is how you might be able to exploit it,
etc. Alright, so let me get this out of the way to start with. One thing that everyone needs to
understand you cannot over ride the pilot. Alright, you cannot over ride the pilots inputs on
flight controls. That system is closed, you know, even if it is fly by wire. Believe it or not
some of these airliners still use cables for some of their controls. For example, the
Embraer regional jet actually uses cables for the elevator controls so it's not even fly by
wire completely. But, also something you should understand is that all of these airplanes
do feature mechanical backup instruments. Now, I'm not going to say that the pilots still
know how to use them, I'm just going to say they're there. (Laughter) >> Right >> You can't
really hack a mechanical altimeter or an attitude indicator, et cetra, et cetra. I
said, you can but I should have said you may be able to affect the auto pilot. But if the
pilots notice what's going on they'll disconnect the auto pilot and Polly can tell you
there's at least nine different ways to do that. In addition to that, you can overpower the auto
pilot and there are limits on what's allowed for certified aircraft. For example, if you
have an airline pilot that's a size zero model and she moonlights as a airline captain,
she can still throw all of her 90 pounds on that control yolk and overpower the auto pilot.
Also, you should realize that if you try to do something to hack into the auto pilot you're most
likely going to generate some sort of alert that, again, hopefully pilots would notice.
Little bit of background talking about avionics networks. In the olden times, people used
something called ARINC 429 which is a standard for interconnecting avionics
systems. In the bottom corner you'll see a little picture of a PCM CIA card that says 429 on it
and this is something that you could use on a laptop if you were going to test a piece of
avionics that uses ARINC 429. By the way today we're going to talk a lot about ARINC
standards. It's a really old company that's been doing stuff in aviation and they've
developed all these standards that everybody uses, so you'll see that a lot. Now, ARINC 429
is not really connected to anything useful for our purposes. And it requires some
specialized hardware. Some people said, you know, buying proprietary stuff so you can
test all these avionics is a pain in the butt, let's do something better. Let's do
something based on COTS, common off the shelf stuff. And that's what where we get into our
discussion of ARINC 664 which in certain airplanes basically if it's an airbus, they call it
AFDX, which is essentially the same thing. So, what is this AFDX or ARINC 664. Technically
it's 664 part seven networking but nobody cares. It's built on ether net but you can't just
start sending packets. You know, it's like saying I have a videocassette, can you, can you
play it. Sure I can. Oh, it's beta max and it's PAL. (Laughter) >>All right. So,
yeah, it's the same but different. Something you should know is never wireless. These
avionics networks are never wireless networks. They do have some security in place. They're
not connected to things like the entertainment system and they're not connected to anything
wireless. Alright. So, ARINC 664 or AFDX is something that was based on ARINC 629. 629's kind
of like 429 but different, right and the 629 was first found in the Boeing 777 and pretty much
that's the only place you'll see it. Nobody else uses it. It's only found in that one aircraft.
Boeing is going on like the 787 uses 664 instead but as I said before, this allows you to use
your nice common off the shelf components so that it's easier to find chips and things in
order to build your avionics. Built on internet but not the same thing. One of the big
differences that you'll find with this is that it uses two redundant channels and we'll
talk more about that in a bit and also it assigns time slices to avoid collisions and to make
things terministic. Ether net is great and we all understand it, we all understand how to use it
but one of the issues for this case for using trait up ether net is you don't know how long
it's going to take for your packets to arrive and that's a problem if you are trying to do
something like move a flight control. Also in the ARINC 664 standard is this idea of virtual
links. So, essentially what you can do, you can have multiple links on the same wires and each
of these links is a unidirectional logical pipe. Every one of them has one and
only one sender and one or more receivers. And as I said, you have some time slicing that's
done to avoid collisions and you have to decide how much bandwidth you want to assign to
each of these pipes. There's only so much bandwidth on the wire and if you have multiple
things that are going to be used, you have to decide, all right, I'm going to use this
much bandwidth or whatever. Playing music, downloading music over A cars, you can't really do
that but and then there's also the idea of jitter. Jitter is just the maximum difference in
timing for those packets to arrive. And it's based on things such as how many virtual links
are on the wire and what the bandwidth is assigned to each of them. Alright. So, a connection
on AFDX would look kind of like this on the left. Hopefully that's not fuzzy. It's a little
fuzzy on my monitor up here, but you have a couple of pieces of avionics and each of them has 2
ether net adapters an A channel and a B channel. And logically you have kind of a nick, if you
will, inside each of these avionics pieces and they have these two channels but logically
inside the avionics it looks like just 1ether net channel and in order to connect to -- I
think we might have a brief pause here. >> Oh no, keep going. >> Okay. As I was saying,
in order to -- >> Security alert. >> Captain Polly is looking worried. Security. Never
mind. >> What does any of this mean? Go ahead. >> What does anything mean? Alright. So, only
thing you should realize is that there always needs to be an avionics switch of some sort. >>
No, no, no, no, no. That's wrong. (Laughter). >> I'm sorry, go ahead. Go ahead. >> Okay.
(Laughter). >> You should have run this by me before you started speaking, right. Nothing
can be done about that now. >> It's not my first time. >> Ooh. You know what, second -- still
in tune on the speaker. >> Raise your hand if you're a first time speaker. >> All right. >> Thanks
for that by the way. >> Now we can't talk for eight hours. >> Eight hours at least. (Laughter)
>> So, as I was saying , there's no equivalent to a crossover cable in these situations.
Pretty much you're going to have to go to an avionics switch even if you have just two pieces of
avionics which you would never have that situation anyway. But looking a little bit at ARINC
664 in real life, this is a partial diagram for a undisclosed airliner and you'll
notice that some of the links are highlighted in yellow and those are the two wave lengths.
So those are the 664 links between the flight management system and some flight computers
and some other stuff. And if you don't think this is pretty tightly integrated, this next
picture will kind of give you an idea that, again, this is only a partial diagram from some
unknown airliner, and you'll see that there's quite a bit of data floating around on these busses.
The other thing you should realize, the number of 664 networks varies from one
aircraft to the next. Some of these networks are twisted pair, some of them are fibers, some of
them are coax even. All of these where allowed and they interoperate and typically these
switches will translate between the different media connection and such. Let's talk about
entertainment systems. A lot of talk has been about these entertainment systems. If you
look at the in seat displays and you see, oh, this is where we're going, this is where we've been
kind of thing, nice little maps, something pretty to watch, of course we find on some of them
like Spirit -- well, they didn't even have that but if they did I'm sure there would be a credit
card reader. I flew out on Spirit. I'm waiting for them to have a credit card reader for
the toilet paper in the lav , you know. Just better hold it. Alright. So, it's connected to
output ports on the GPS and FMS, the flight management system, or thorough something called a NED,
a network extension device. We'll talk more about those in a bit. One thing you should
realize though these are never connected to that ARINC 429, 629 or 664 network. There's no
reason for this to be connected and also remember it's never wireless and it's not compatible
with your everyday friendly TCPIP. You might wonder why do I have a picture of a VGA port.
This kind of emphasizes the point, this is an output it is connected to so, you know,
trying to hack it and trying to get to the FMS through this avenue is kind of like trying to
hack into your computer through the VGA port. You know, it's -- you can send signals there but
if nobody's listening, nobody's listening. Alright. Here's a picture of one example in flight
entertainment system. You can see kind of how it's connected and there's a server that serves
up stuff to the passengers, et cetera, et cetera. And down in the corner is a picture of one
commercially available in flight entertainment system. Alright. I want to talk a little bit about
the 777. There's been some confusion around the 777 in particular, because of a little
flight -- any one ever heard of , what is it? >>Malaysian Air 370. >>Malaysian Air 370? Any
one heard anything about that? There's been a lot of confusion around this. And here's what the
situation is. Alright, so Boeing went to the FAA and they asked them for a special condition to
allow passenger information network to get some sort of connection to networks such as
the aircraft information network. So, in November of last year, FAA granted them a special
condition which basically said, okay, you may now do this. They provided that they could use one
of these Neds, network extension devices, as long as they met certain conditions. So, what are
those certain conditions, those special conditions? This is what they said. The applicant must
ensure that the design provides isolation from or airplane electronic system security
protection against, access by bad people basically. Alright. And that's where the NED comes
in. The NED is a Gateway and essentially what it does is it translates whatever protocol is
being used on the avionics busses, be it ARINC 429, 629 or 664 into IP, basically into
something that everybody else understands. So, like any Gateway, each of these pathways
has to get programmed. Alright, so that's one thing you need to realize. So, you can't just say,
well, I'm going send stuff to this Gateway. Again, even if you could send something to this
Gateway, if nobody is listening, nobody is listening. You know, it's like the tree that falls in
the forest. Do you still have to pay taxes on it? (Laughter).
>>> So, the other thing you need realize is that the FMS does not receive any input from the NED.
You know, it might output information such as where is the plane now, where is the plane
going to the NED, so you can't send bogus commands to an FMS through this NED, because it
doesn't listen for commands from the NED. Now, I will say this. A possible attack factor, if you
did compromise the NED, you might be able to impersonate another device that the FMS does
listen to. Alright, I'm never going to say everything is impossible, I'm just trying to
say that you can't compromise the NED and talk directly to the FMS. You might be able to fake
it out a little bit but, again, in the end, you got the pilots there to protect you from weird
stuff and hopefully they pay attention, don't fall asleep, overfly the airport 'cause
that's never happened. (Laughter). >> Exactly. Alright. Here's an example NED which I
shamelessly took off of Tela 9 Controls web site without permission but hey it's out
there. And from here you can see that the black lines, in this case its an ERIC 429 NED, you
can see a black line coming from the FMS to the NED but you do not see any corresponding return
path to the FMS. So, let's talk a little bit about Malaysia 370. What was this plane? It was a
777. A 777 using ARINC 629 and as we said, it's not the same -- I mean, it's a 777. They're the
only ones that ever use the 629. It's not really the 664 that we've been talking about mostly,
so it's not ethernet, it's really not ethernet. It's not as close to ethernet that you're
used to as 664. So, because this is the only plane that uses 629 and because it's really not
ethernet, it's even further away, that makes it a little bit harder to hack. I realize it's
somewhat security, but, yeah -- I'm not saying it's impossible. Nothing's impossible but it's a
lot harder. And I'll let Polly talk about this next slide here. >> So, Dr. Phil thought since I
was the newbe you guys might give me a few less jeers than you would him, boos. So, we real
did try hard. We thought we were close. But for proprietary reasons we weren't able to get
any of the manufacturers to share their goodies, so what we did what we have is even better
for you. We have -- we're going to move from schematics to dramatics. We have just a movie
clip of what this might look like if passengers in the back were trying to hack into the
input entertainment wireless system. >> Hello. Welcome to how to hack into and take control.
(Laughter) >>Step one, trying to get access to the plane's navigation system, try to
utilize the plane's in flight entertainment system. >> ¶¶
>>> This is near to impossible. But with enough typing (Laughter) >> buzz words, such
as I'm in and rerouting the network, also (Laughter)
>>> We can make it seem like the in flight entertainment and navigation systems are connected
and thus frighten an air marshal enough to incapacitate you . (Laughter). >> With enough
hacking one could be able to sign onto the planes WIFI for free. >> And just by the way,
all of the actors were pilots. >> No real tasers were used, no pilots were harmed in the
filming of this. Alright, and you know, that was meant to be a bit humorous, so hopefully you
found it so. Also just to reinforce the point, the in flight wireless is not connected
in any meaningful way to the system, so good luck trying to get in that way. I want to shift
gears a little bit, talk a little bit about ADS-B and ADS-A. Some of the things that
you can do. ADS-B is a pretty well known protocol. There's been some other talks about it.
If you look at the slide down in the bottom left, you'll see a board that you can use to
receive encode ADS-B signals, even send your own and on the right, is a commercial unit that
you might find in a small aircraft that's a GPS/ADS-B unit. For receiving and sending
ADS-B signals. Actually I think that one only receives ADS-B. As others have said it's true
there's no security in this protocol. You can create phantom aircraft, you can create bogus
ADS-B transmissions all day long. You could even create fake weather reports if you so choose
or if you're just really frustrated, you could always jam it. You can jam any frequency.
However, as we're going to talk about in a bit it's not likely to affect any kind of traffic or
collision avoidance system and there's some reasons for that. So, little bit more about ADS-B.
ADS-B is automatic dependent surveillance broadcast, that's what B is for, and this was
piloted in Alaska and it was intended to improve the situation where there's not a
lot of radar coverage. Alaska is a very large state and it's not very populous. This is part of a
long-term goal for a system that's known as free flight that's planned for the future
and the idea is that eventually aircraft would be able to kind of negotiate with each other in
order to avoid collisions, et cetera, et cetera. It can provide traffic and weather in
places where that's available and it's used by small planes to broadcast their positions. The
corner picture is actually of an ADS-B out unit. This is something that's been mandated
by the FAA for small aircraft to have by 2020. >> 2020. >> 2020, yes. Alright. Now, there is
something similar but different to ADS-B it's called ADS-A, all right. And you might hear people
talk about ADS-B. The one thing you need to realize is the airlines use ADS-A. This is
related to the ACARS system we'll going to talk about as well. And it's like this. ADS-B
is kind of like a cable ready TV and ADS-A is a cable box. Alright. It's addressable so you
can do things like pay per view movies for the cable box. For ADS-A it allows specific
aircraft to send and receive messages and it allows lower separation outside of radar
coverage through a system called FANS, the future air navigation system and essentially what this
means if you look at an airliner that's flying over the ocean in times past this separation
between airliners was fairly large because they're over the ocean and there's no radar
coverage. With something like FANS reporting their position through ADS-A, which sometimes
is called ADS-C for -- I just forgot. You can look it up. It will report into the FANS system
and that allows them to be a little bit closer which means more traffic going through, et
cetera, et cetera. Another thing you should realize is that airliners use neither ADS-B or
ADS-A for collision avoidance. They do other stuff. Other things about the transmissions,
ADS-A transmissions and also the ACARS transmissions, they can either be VHF, HF or satellite
and it really depends where they are. If you're over lands and over the United States, it's
probably VHF. If you're over Europe it might be HF. If you're over the arctic, might be HF and
if you're in the middle of nowhere, it's probably satellite. And they selectively
choose which media they're going to use based on things like cost and speed. Alright. So,
collision avoidance, when you look at collision avoidance system is primarily small
aircraft you might see something called TRISB, traffic information service B, and this
is a service that's provided by air traffic control and it requires you to have either a
mode S transponder or ADS-B in and sometimes you have both of those things. It's only
available in some areas. It's also not authoritative. What that means if you're flying
along in a plane equipped with TISB and air traffic control says hey, you have traffic at
your 1:00 o'clock 2 miles, you can't say, I have the traffic unless you can physically see
them. So, it's not an authoritative system. The other important thing to know is that
this does not use the ADS-B signals from others. And ATC does not automatically relay
every ADS-B signal they receive. So, we talked earlier about the fact that you can very easily
take a board and you can generate ADS-B messages and send them out. The problem with that
is those signals are probably going to get ignored. If there's not a corresponding radar blip
somewhere that corresponds to that aircraft, most likely ATC is going to ignore that
transmission. Also, again, they're not going to pick up that transmission, so they're
not going to send it to somebody else who might be running TISB in their aircraft. Other kinds
of collision avoidance, some of the small planes use something called TCAD I think they named
it this because it sounded like T Cass and they thought you might give them more money for
their stuff and it provides some information. Again it's not authoritative and what T CAD
does is it essentially just listens for transponders around it and then it goes, hey, I
heard a transponder over here, don't go over there or gives you some sort of indication as to
traffic around you. Now, the big boys, biz jets and upward they have something called TCATS. So
let's talk about TCATS. By the way, its just backing up here a second, the display on the
bottom is a T CAT display. Sometimes people call it the fish finder. You'll hear people
say I got them on the fish finder sometimes incorrectly pilots especially if their name
is Joe, that's a little private joke with me Polly, will say I have them on the fish finder.
They don't have a fish finder and that's not legal for them to call it traffic. But T CATS.
What does T CATS do, it uses the transponders around it and unlike T CAD and these other
systems, it can actively interrogate other transponders. If you ever look at a radar
system you see the big typically red parabolic antenna that's rotating, on top of that you
might see another antenna array often painted white and that antenna array on the top is
sending out another signal and then transponders are responding back to it. And they're saying,
oh, I'm over here and we'll talk a little bit about them in just a second. But a T CAT system can
actively query other transponders. So, how this works, for example, if I'm
sitting at the airport ready to take off and a biz jet or larger and comes in to land, I can look
at my transponder and I will see the reply light continuously illuminated indicating that
somebody keeps pinging my transponder. Now, this is an authoritative system which means
they do not have to actually physically see you to say that they have you as traffic. And
that's a good thing. Now, it might be a little bit hard to see but down in the corner you
see an example of what we call an RA, a resolution advisory. >> Advisory. >> Advisory. And it
says in red traffic, traffic and it has some information. In addition to this you'll have a
nice lovely voice in the cockpit also telling you, traffic, traffic and in some cases a
recommended action as well. If they're really close. >> And the voice does get more and more
excited the closer the traffic gets. >> Is it a sexy voice? >> I don't tend to think it's sexy.
>> Yeah, military aircraft, they actually like to use female voices because they found that
military pilots respond better. Maybe they used to listen to their mom. So, one of my friends
did some work on an undisclosed fighter plane and he did some work on the system known as
bitching Betty. And bitching Betty would tell you about your fuel situation and how you
needed to go back before you ran out of gas and landed in the ocean. So, transponders -- here
I got a couple examples. Up at the top is an example transponder off of Boeing, I
think 737, but don't quote me. And in the bottom we have a couple of general aviation
transponders. On the left we have a nice one from Garmin with a digital display and if any of
you are pilots in the room, you've probably seen the old school ones with the little
twisty knobs on the right. Alright. And these have different modes of operation.
The most basic mode is called mode A and in mode A, what happens is it will send out a
ping and you'll respond and you'll give them that code on the front. By the way, they
actually are the only people that I know of that use octal. So it's an octal system, so each
of those numbers goes up to seven. So it's a 4,096 code transponder. Alright. So,
there's also the ability to send your altitude which is what we call mode C and then there's
mode S which is the selective system. The other thing you should know is that airliners
have at least two of these by regulation. They must. And I'll turn it over to Polly. >> Okay.
So, this next clip is just going to show you that attacking the ADS-B may possibly be harassing
but I'm going to let it speak for itself here. >> Force the plane to reroute to another
location or at least harass the flight crew. Simply, have your have your pilot friends fly
multiple planes front, behind and around the plane you would like. Have said plane send beep
transponders signals to the hijacked plane and force it to react to resolution advisories.
The crew may possibly reroute to another location. (Laughter). >> Seems like a lot of work, I
wonder if we could borrow that one. >> In actuality here's what would happen. >> ADS-B attack.
>> Interceeded . >> Be advised that nobody could hack into the airplane, that would be....
(Laughter). >> Alright. So, technically that was two kinds of attacks. Yes, you could --
again, you could attack the collision avoidance systems but because they use directional
antennas in an array, you can't just beam signals at them. Alright. You can't beam ADS-B
signals. Transponder replies or whatever at them. You would have to beam signals from multiple
directions and it would be fairly complicated and if the plane that you're trying to
target is a lot faster than your friend's plane that's going to be pretty challenging. >> The
Lego plane would have a really hard timekeeping up. >> I don't know. Luke Skywalker 's got R2
D-2 helping out. I don't know. Maybe he would be okay. Kind of our last topic we want to talk
about ACARS and such. Engine systems, engine monitors and such might be hooked up to this
ACARS system and you may have heard things about the 370 flight, people saying, well,
there were these pings, right, these pings that were coming on after the plane had disappeared.
And I believe what they're probably talking about are these ACARS messages and the way that
this is normally set up, a lot of the systems in the plane will send messages back home either
to the manufacturer or the airlines just giving them status information. By the way there's
also some boring stuff that comes across ACARS like hey the lav's broken, you know stuff
like that. >> Stuff like company for a drug test after you land. >> That's not fun especially if
you just had a shot. >> Alright. So, sometimes control systems, people have talked about well
could I hack into the engine control systems. One thing you need realize about the engine
control systems is that all of them have a purely mechanical backup and in most cases the
controls themselves are actually in the mechanical with an electronic system that is used
to trim it. This is kind of a general theme in aviation in that we always like to have
things that are safe, not necessarily most efficient so the idea is that if the
electronic system were to fail, the engines would continue to operate, just not perhaps
maximal efficiency. Alright. ACARS is a system that's used to send messages to and from the
ground. It can be used to and from people or systems and it's used to send things like weather
information, delays, updated flight plans, maintenance information as we just said, and
here in the pictures you see a display with an ACARS message and then there's always a
printer, like a little ticker tape, so if you look at the bottom picture in the corner
you'll notice a little printer between the pilots that will print out all these ACARS
messages that come along. Now, you could create a bogus flight plan update. You could create
bogus weather. I know that there was a talk recently, last couple days, talking about some SATCOM
systems that have some vulnerabilities and those surely exist and it is certainly true
that you could send out bogus ACARS messages. The real question that you have to answer
is what will happen as a result of those messages and we'll talk about that here in a second. And
in my opinion, I'd say that it's not a very practical way to take over an airplane and in the
picture you have an engine display from an airliner and what you'll notice again, you
know, there's an output of status information and the period varies depending on the
system and the aircraft, you know, but, say, every hour or so might be typical information
that's sent when it comes to status information on the engines and such, and then when
they're on the ground, there's additional information that can be downloaded for more
maintenance purposes. >> Cyber security experts and airline pilots have very much in common
threat mitigation. There's multiple levels of safety and one that you are about to see
here, every airline flight that's in progress has a company dispatcher that's behind them
that they can communicate with and pilots are supposed to ask themselves does this seem
reasonable, does this make sense, to do a gut check. >> She must have had a big shot because
she just went the wrong way in the press. >> The video you'll see here --the pilots catching
it, that just doesn't make sense. Let's check on this. >> From the ground one may be able
to take control of the flights ACAR's message. Where a crew receives flight plan
modifications and ATC clearances. >> We got an ACAR's message. >> Emergency! Reroute
plane to Cuba. We're... >> Make sure to submit the orders to a Pilot to verify a change in
flight plan. I don't know about that, we better verify that with company. >> Hey company, this is
2734 could you just confirm, we just got an ACARS message saying we need to reroute to Cuba. >>
No, that is incorrect, please say on course. >> In conclusion, hijacking an airplane is very
serious and highly illegal and requires a specific set of circumstances that are very,
very difficult. >> ¶¶ >> There will be no cigars today, right? (Applause). >> Alright. I was
going say, you know, Polly went backwards on the slides that's why there's that eight-hour
rule, you know. Okay, just some closing thoughts. Nearly every protocol that's used in aviation
is unsecured. There's no encryption on ACARS, there's no encryption on ADS-B. By the way
we didn't mention it but one of the things that you'll see sometimes come across ACARS, are
things like passenger lists, so not very private but anyway. And there certainly is a lot of
potential to annoy ATC and or small aircraft and, you know, there's an increasing level of
automation with these unsecured protocols in place and this potentially could be problematic
and definitely something that we should continue to be aware of as that level of automation
increases. However, thankfully there's a lot of checks and balances and in a case of
airlines we have two pilots on every aircraft, so we have two humans kind of in the mix that
will hopefully keep us safe and for now, I think we're pretty safe. I feel pretty safe flying
airliners. I don't have a problem flying them, taking my children, et cetera. Anyway, if
you have any questions, you know, come see us later. Hit us up on twitter, I'm just P
Polstra, I'm not very inventive and Captain Polly. So thanks a lot. >> Thank you. (Applause).
>> Great job.